Shakespeare's Julius Caesar Inquiry: Edited Selections
from Book IV of Appian's Civil Wars
Mr. Steel
106
Cassius and Brutus were encamped [in the hills], the former on the southern and
the latter on the northern of the two. They did not advance against the
retreating army of Norbanus because they learned that Antony was approaching,
Octavian having been left behind at Epidamnus on account of sickness.
107
Brutus and Cassius were satisfied with the position and proceeded to fortify
their camps, but Antony moved his army rapidly, wishing to anticipate the enemy
in occupying Amphipolis as an advantageous position for the battle. When he
found it already fortified by Norbanus he was delighted. Leaving his supplies
there and one legion, under the command of Pinarius, he advanced with the
greatest boldness and encamped in the plain at a distance of only eight stades
from the enemy, and straightway the superiority of the enemy's situation and
the inferiority of his own became evident.
Antony's audacity, although he was
driven to it by necessity, confounded the enemy when they saw him pitch his
camp so near them and in such a contemptuous manner as soon as he arrived.
108 In
this way both sides had fortified themselves, in the meantime making trial of
each other by cavalry skirmishes only. When they had done all that they
intended and Octavian had arrived
he and Antony prepared for battle
forthwith. Brutus and Cassius also drew out their forces on their higher
ground, but did not come down. They decided not to give battle, hoping to wear
out the enemy by want of supplies. There were nineteen legions of infantry on
each side, but those of Brutus and Cassius lacked something of
being full, while those of Octavian and Antony were complete.
[T]hey did
nothing for several days. Brutus and Cassius did not wish to engage, but rather
to continue wasting the enemy by lack of provisions, since they themselves had
abundance from Asia, all transported by the sea from close at hand, all the
enemy had nothing in abundance and nothing from their own territory.
109
Mindful chiefly of these facts Brutus and his generals protracted the war.
Antony, fearful of the delay, resolved to force them to an engagement. He
formed a plan of effecting a passage through the marsh secretly, if possible,
in order to get in the enemy's rear without their knowledge, and cut off their
avenue of supply from Thasos.
Cassius was amazed at the ingenuity as well as
the secrecy of this work, and he formed the counter design of cutting Antony off
from his redoubts.
110 When
Antony saw this about noon, instantly, with rage and fury, he turned his own
army, which was facing in another direction, and led it against
Cassius
. While he was making this audacious charge, obliquely and up
hill, across the space that separated the two armies, the soldiers of Brutus
were provoked at the insolence of the enemy in dashing boldly athwart their
front while they stood there armed. So they charged on their
own account, without any order from their officers, and killed with much
slaughter
all they came up with. The battle once begun they
charged upon the army of Octavian, also, which was drawn up
opposite, put it to flight, pursued it to the camp which Antony and Octavian
had in common, and captured it. Octavian himself was not
there, having been warned in a dream to beware of that day.
111-112
When Antony saw that battle was joined he was delighted because he had forced
it, for he had been in trouble about his supplies
. So he continued his
charge, as he had begun it, on the run, and advanced under a shower of
missiles, and forced his way till he struck the troop of Cassius which had not
moved from its assigned position and which was amazed at this unexpected
audacity.
All this was done swiftly
[and]
[a]s
the camp was in a strong position it was guarded by only a few men, for which
reason Antony easily overcame them. Cassius' soldiers outside the camp were
already being beaten, and when they saw that the camp was taken they scattered
in disorderly flight. The victory was complete and alike on either side, Brutus
defeating the enemy's left wing and taking their camp, while Antony overcame
Cassius and ravaged his camp with irresistible courage. There was great
slaughter on both sides, but by reason of the extent of the plain and the
clouds of dust they were ignorant of each other's fate. When they learned the
facts they recalled their scattered forces. Those who returned resembled
porters rather than soldiers, and did not at once perceive each other nor see
anything clearly. Otherwise either party would have flung down their burdens
and fiercely attacked the others carrying off plunder in this disorderly
fashion. According to conjecture the number of killed on the side of Cassius,
including slave shield-bearers, was about 9000, and on the side of
Octavian double that number.
113 When
Cassius was driven out of his fortifications and no longer had even a camp to
go to, he hurried up the hill to Philippi and took a survey of the situation.
As he could not see accurately on account of the dust, nor
could he see everything, but only that his own camp was captured, he ordered
Pindarus, his shield-bearer, to fall upon him and kill him. While Pindarus
still delayed a messenger ran up and said that Brutus had been victorious on
the other wing, and was ravaging the enemy's camp. Cassius merely answered,
"Tell him that I pray his victory may be complete." Then,
turning to Pindarus, he said, "What are you waiting for? Why do you not
deliver me from my shame?" Then, as he presented his throat, Pindarus slew
him. This is one account of the death of Cassius. Others say that as some
horsemen were approaching, bringing the good news from Brutus, he took them for
enemies and sent Titinius to find out exactly; that the horsemen pressed around
Titinius joyfully as a friend of Cassius, and at the same time uttered loud
hurrahs; that Cassius, thinking that Titinius had fallen into the hands of
enemies, said, "Have I waited to see my friend torn from me?"
and that he withdrew to a tent with Pindarus, and Pindarus was never seen
afterward. For this reason some persons think that he killed Cassius without
orders.
Thus Cassius ended his life on his birthday, on which, as
it happened, the battle was fought, and Titinius killed himself because he had
been too late; 114 and Brutus wept over the dead body of
Cassius and called him the last of the Romans, meaning that his equal in virtue
would never exist again. He reproached him for haste and precipitancy, but at
the same time he esteemed him happy because he was freed from cares and
troubles, "which," he said, "are leading Brutus, whither, ah,
whither?" He delivered the corpse to friends to be buried
secretly lest the army should be moved to tears at the sight; and himself
passed the whole night, without food and without care for his own person,
restoring order in Cassius' army. In the morning the enemy drew up their army
in order of battle, so that they might not seem to have been beaten. Brutus,
perceiving their design, exclaimed, "Let us arm also and make believe that
we have suffered defeat." So he put his forces in line, and the enemy
withdrew. Brutus said to his friends, jestingly, "They challenged us when
they thought we were tired out, but they dared not put us to the test."
117 Brutus assembled his army
and addressed it as follows: "In yesterday's engagement, fellow-soldiers,
you were in every respect superior to the enemy. You began the battle eagerly,
although without orders, and you utterly destroyed their far-famed fourth legion
on which their wing placed its reliance, and all those supporting it as far as
their camp, and you took and plundered their camp first, so that our victory
far outweighs the disaster on our left wing. But when it was in your power to
finish the whole work, you chose rather to plunder than to kill the vanquished;
for most of you passed by the enemy and made a rush for his property. We are
the superior again in this, that of our two camps they captured only one, while
we took all of theirs, so that here our gain is twice as great as our loss. So
great are our advantages in the battle. How far we excel them in other respects
you may learn from our prisoners concerning the scarcity and dearness of
provisions among them, the difficulty of procuring further supplies, and how
near they are to absolute want.
When, therefore, you see them eager to fight,
bear in mind that they are so pressed by hunger that they prefer death by
battle. We will make it part of our plan that hunger shall engage them before
we do, so that when it is necessary to fight we shall find them weakened and
exhausted. Let us not be carried away by our ardour before the proper time. Let
no one think that my generalship has become sloth rather than action, when he
casts his eye on the sea behind us, which sends us all this aid and provisions
and enables us to win victory without danger if you wait and do not mind the
insults and provocations of the enemy, who are not braver than ourselves, as
yesterday's work shows, but are trying to avert another danger. Let the zeal
which I now desire you to repress be shown abundantly when I ask it.
The rewards of victory I myself will pay you in full when it shall please
the gods that our work be finished. And now for your bravery in yesterday's
engagement, I will give to each soldier 1000 drachmas and to your
officers in proportion."
After speaking thus he distributed the donative to the
legions in their order. Some writers say that he promised to give them also the
cities of Lacedaemon and Thessalonica to plunder.
119
Meanwhile Octavian and Antony, seeing that Brutus was not willing to fight,
assembled their men, and Antony addressed them thus: "Soldiers, I am
sure that the enemy claim in their speeches a share of yesterday's victory
because they drove some of us and plundered our camp, but they will show by
their action that it was wholly yours. For I promise you that neither to‑morrow
nor on any subsequent day will they be willing to fight. It is the clearest proof of their defeat yesterday and of their lack of courage,
that like those who have been vanquished in public games, they keep out of the
arena. Surely they did not collect so numerous an army in order to pass their
time in fortifications in the desert parts of Thrace. But they built their
fortifications when you were still approaching because they were afraid; and
now that you have come they adhere to them because of yesterday's defeat, for
which also the older and more experienced of their generals in utter despair
committed suicide, and this act is itself the greatest proof of their disaster.
Since, therefore, they do not accept our challenge and come down from the
mountain, but trust to their precipices instead of their arms, be valiant,
O my soldiers of Rome, and force them to it again as you forced them
yesterday. Let us consider it base to yield to those who are afraid of us, to
keep our hands off such sluggards, or, soldiers as we are, to be men weaker
than walls. We did not come hither to pass our lives in this plain, and if we
delay we shall be in want of everything. If we are well advised we shall
prosecute the war sharply, in order that peace may be of the longest duration
possible.
120
"We, who have not incurred you censure for the onset and the plan of
yesterday's battle, will devise fresh opportunities and means for this end. Do
you, on the other hand, when you are asked, repay your generals with your
valour. Nor must you be troubled, for a moment, by yesterday's plundering of
our camp, for wealth consists not in the property we hold, but in conquering
with might, which will restore to us as victors not only what we lost
yesterday, which is still safe in the enemy's possession, but
the enemy's wealth in addition. And if we are in haste to take these things let
us hasten to bring on a battle. What we took from them yesterday balances what
we lost, and perhaps more, for they brought with them all that they had
extorted and plundered from Asia, while you, coming from your own country, left
at home everything in the way of luxury, and brought with us only what was
necessary. If there was anything lavish in our camp it was the property of your
generals, who will gladly give it all to you as a reward for your victory.
However, as compensation even for this loss we will give you an additional reward
of 5000 drachmas for each soldier, five times as much to each centurion,
and twice the latter sum to each tribune."
121
Having spoken thus, he marshalled his men again on the following day. As the
enemy would not come down even then, Antony was disgusted, but he continued to
lead out his men daily.
122 The
task of Octavian and Antony became pressing, hunger was already felt, and in
view of the magnitude of the coming famine the fear of it grew upon them more
and more each day.
As they could not rest under
so great an impending danger, and as their other artifices were of no avail,
they ceased offering battle in the plain and advanced with shouts to the
enemy's fortifications, and challenged Brutus to fight, reviling and scoffing
at him, intending not so much to besiege him as by a mad assault to force him
to an engagement.
123 But
Brutus adhered to his original intention, and all the more because he knew of
the famine
, and of the enemy's desperation for want of supplies. He
preferred to endure a siege, or anything else rather than come to an engagement
with men desperate for hunger, and whose hopes rested solely
on fighting because they despaired of every other resource. His soldiers,
however, without reflection, entertained a different opinion. They took it hard
that they should be shut up, idle and cowardly, like women, within their
fortifications. Their officers also, although they approved of Brutus' design,
were vexed, thinking that in the present temper of the army they might
overpower the enemy more quickly. Brutus himself was the cause of these
murmurs, being of a gentle and kindly disposition toward all not like
Cassius, who had been austere and imperious in every way, for which reason the
army obeyed his orders promptly, not interfering with his authority, and not
criticising them when they had learned them. But in the case of Brutus they
expected nothing else than to share the command with him on account of his
mildness of temper. Finally, the soldiers began more and more openly to collect
together in companies and groups and to ask each other, "Why does our
general put a stigma upon us? How have we offended lately we who conquered
the enemy and put him to flight; we who slaughtered those opposed to us and
took their camp?" Brutus took no notice of these murmurs, nor did he call
an assembly, lest he should be forced from his position, contrary to his
dignity, by the unreasoning multitude, and especially by the mercenaries, who,
like fickle slaves seeking new masters, always rest their hopes of safety on
desertion to the enemy.
124 His
officers also kept irritating him and urging him to make use of the eagerness
of the army now, which would speedily bring glorious results.
If the battle should turn out adversely, they could fall back to their walls
and put the same fortifications between themselves and the enemy. Brutus was
especially vexed with these, for they were his officers, and he grieved that
they, who were exposed to the same peril as himself, should capriciously side
with the soldiers in preferring a quick and doubtful chance to a victory
without danger; but, to the ruin of himself and them, he yielded, chiding them
with these words, "I seem likely to carry on war like Pompey the
Great, not so much commanding now as commanded." I think that Brutus
restricted himself to these words in order to conceal his greatest fear, lest
those of his soldiers who had formerly served under Caesar should become
disaffected and desert to the enemy. This both himself and Cassius had
suspected from the beginning, and they had been careful not to give any excuse
for such disaffection toward themselves.
125 So
Brutus led out his army unwillingly and formed them in line of battle before
his walls, ordering them not to advance very far from the hill so that they
might have a safe retreat if necessary and a good position for hurling darts at
the enemy. In each army the men exchanged exhortations with each other. There
was great eagerness for battle, and exaggerated confidence. On the one side was
the fear of famine, on the other a proper shame that they had constrained their
general to fight when he still favoured delay, and fear lest they should come
short of their promises and prove weaker than their boastings, and expose
themselves to the charge of rashness instead of winning praise for good counsel, and because Brutus also, riding through the ranks on
horseback, showed himself before them with a solemn countenance and reminded
them of these things in such words as the opportunity offered. "You have
chosen to fight," he said; "you have forced me to battle when
I could conquer otherwise. Do not falsify my hopes or your own. You have
the advantage of the higher ground and everything safe in your rear. The
enemy's position is the one of peril because he lies between you and
famine."
With these words he passed on, the soldiers telling him
to trust them and echoing his words with shouts of confidence.
126 Octavian and Antony rode through their own ranks shaking hands with those
nearest them, urging them even more solemnly to do their duty and not
concealing the danger of famine, because they believed that that would be an
opportune incitement to bravery. "Soldiers," they said, "we have
found the enemy. We have before us those whom we sought to catch outside of their
fortifications. Let none of you shame his own challenge or prove unequal to his
own threat. Let no one prefer hunger, that unmanageable and distressing evil,
to the walls and bodies of the enemy, which yield to bravery, to the sword, to
despair. Our situation at this moment is so pressing that nothing can be
postponed till to‑morrow, but this very day must decide for us either a
complete victory or an honourable death. If you conquer you gain in one day and
by one blow provisions, money, ships, and camps, and the prizes of victory
offered by ourselves. Such will be the result if, from our first onset upon
them, we are mindful of the necessities urging us on and if,
after breaking their ranks, we immediately cut them off from their gates and
drive them upon the rocks or into the plain, so that the war may not spring up
again or these enemies get away for another period of idleness the only
warriors, surely, who are so weak as to rest their hopes, not on fighting, but
on declining to fight."
127 In
this way Octavian and Antony roused the spirit of those with whom they came in
contact. The emulation of the troops was excited to show themselves worthy of
their commanders and also to escape the danger of famine, which had been
greatly augmented by the naval disaster in the Adriatic. They preferred, if
necessary, to suffer in battle, with the hope of success, rather than be wasted
by an irresistible foe.
Inspired by these thoughts, which each man exchanged with
his neighbour, the spirit of the two armies was wonderfully raised and both
were filled with undaunted courage. They did not now remember that they were
fellow-citizens of their enemies, but hurled threats at each other as though
they had been enemies by birth and descent, so much did the anger of the moment
extinguish reason and nature in them. Both sides divined equally that this day
and this battle would decide the fate of Rome completely; and so indeed it did.
128 The
day was consumed in preparations till the ninth hour, when two eagles fell upon
each other and fought in the space between the armies, amid the profoundest
silence. When the one on the side of Brutus took flight his enemies raised a
great shout and battle was joined. The onset was superb and terrible. They had
little need of arrows, stones, or javelins, which are
customary in war, for they did not resort to the usual manoeuvres and tactics
of battles, but, coming to close combat with naked swords, they slew and were
slain, seeking to break each other's ranks. On the one side it was a fight for
self-preservation rather than victory: on the other for victory and for the
satisfaction of the general who had been forced to fight against his will. The
slaughter and the groans were terrible. The bodies of the fallen were carried
back and others stepped into their places from the reserves. The generals flew
hither and thither overlooking everything, exciting the men by their ardour,
exhorting the toilers to toil on, and relieving those who were exhausted so
that there was always fresh courage at the front.
Finally, the soldiers of Octavian, either from fear of
famine, or by the good fortune of Octavian himself (for certainly the soldiers
of Brutus were not blameworthy), pushed back the enemy's line as though they
were turning round a very heavy machine. The latter were driven back step by
step, slowly at first and without loss of courage. Presently their ranks broke
and they retreated more rapidly, and then the second and third ranks in the
rear retreated with them, all mingled together in disorder, crowded by each
other and by the enemy, who pressed upon them without ceasing until it became
plainly a flight. The soldiers of Octavian, then especially mindful of the
order they had received, seized the gates of the enemy's fortification at great
risk to themselves because they were exposed to missiles from above and in
front, but they prevented a great many of the enemy from gaining entrance.
These fled, some to the sea, and some through the river to the mountains.
129 The
enemy having been routed, the generals divided the remainder of the work
between themselves, Octavian to capture those who should break out of the camp
and to watch the main camp, while Antony was everything, and attacked
everywhere, falling upon the fugitives and those who still held together, and
upon their other camping-places, crushing all alike with vehement impetuosity.
Fearing lest the leaders should escape him and collect another army, he
despatched cavalry upon the roads and outlets of the field of battle to capture
those who were trying to escape.
They surrounded the fortified positions and
escarpments, hunted down the fugitives, and kept watch upon those inside.
Others pursued Brutus himself. Lucilius seeing them rushing on furiously
surrendered himself, pretending to be Brutus, and asked them to take him to
Antony instead of Octavian; for which reason chiefly he was believed to be
Brutus trying to avoid his implacable enemy. When Antony heard that they were
bringing him, he went to meet him, with a pause to reflect on the fortune, the
dignity, and the virtue of the man, and thinking how he should receive Brutus.
As he was approaching, Lucilius presented himself, and said with perfect
boldness, "You have not captured Brutus, nor will virtue ever be taken
prisoner by baseness. I deceived these men and so here I am."
Antony, observing that the horsemen were ashamed of their
mistake, consoled them, saying, "The game you have caught for me is not
worse, but better than you think as much better as a friend is than an
enemy."
130
Brutus fled to the mountains with a considerable force, intending to return to
his camp by night, or to move down to the sea. But since all the roads were
encompassed by guards he passed the night under arms with all his party, and it
is said that, looking up to the stars, he exclaimed: "Forget not, Zeus,
the author of these ills," referring to Antony. It is
said that Antony himself repeated this saying at a later period in the midst of
his own dangers, regretting that when he might have associated himself with
Cassius and Brutus, he had become the tool of Octavian.
131 On
the following day Brutus, seeing the enemy still lying in wait for him, and
having fewer than four full legions, which had ascended the mountain with him,
thought it best not to address himself to his troops, but to
their officers, who were ashamed and repentant of their fault. To them he sent
to put them to the test and to learn whether they were willing to break through
the enemy's lines and regain their own camp, which was still held by their
troops who had been left there. These officers, though they had rushed to
battle unadvisedly, had been of good courage for the most part, but now, for
some divine infatuation was already upon them, gave to their general the
undeserved answer that he should look out for himself, that they had tempted
fortune many times, and that they would not throw away the last remaining hope
of accommodation. Then Brutus said to his friends, "I am no longer
useful to my country if such is the temper of these men," and calling
Strato, who was one of his friends, gave him the order to stab him. While
Strato still urged him to deliberate, Brutus called one of his servants. Then
Strato said, "Your friend shall not come short of your servants in
executing your last commands, if the decision is actually reached." With
these words he thrust his sword into the side of Brutus, who did not shrink or
turn away.
132 So
died Cassius and Brutus, two most noble and illustrious Romans, and of
incomparable virtue, but for one crime; for although they belonged to the party
of Pompey the Great, and had been the enemies, in peace and in war, of Gaius
Caesar, he made them his friends, and from being friends he was treating them
as sons. The Senate at all times had a peculiar attachment to them, and
commiseration for them when they fell into misfortune. On
account of those two it granted amnesty to all the assassins, and when they
took flight it bestowed governorships on them in order that they should not be
exiles; not that it was disregardful of Gaius Caesar or rejoiced at what had
happened to him, for it admired his bravery and good fortune, gave him a public
funeral at his death, ratified his acts, and had for a long time awarded the
magistracies and governorships to his nominees, considering that nothing better
could be devised than what he proposed. But its zeal for these two men and its
solicitude for them brought it under suspicion of complicity in the
assassination so much were those two held in honour by all. By the most illustrious
of the exiles they were more honoured than Sextus Pompeius, although he was
nearer and not irreconcilable to the triumvirs, while they were farther away
and irreconcilable.
Your Assignment:
Look
for similarities and differences between Shakespeare's retelling and Appian's
account of the final battle between the forces of Brutus and Cassius on the
one hand, and Octavian and Antony on the other. Why might Shakespeare have
changed some things? Write 3 paragraphs minimum (Good students will write more). |