Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c.
340–c. 270 BCE), founded around 307 BCE. Epicurus was an atomic
materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him
to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following
Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the
greatest good was to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of
tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) as well as absence of
bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and
the limits of our desires. The combination of these two states is
supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism
is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole
intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure
and its advocacy of a simple life make it quite different from
"hedonism" as it is commonly understood.
For Epicurus, the highest pleasure (tranquility and
freedom from fear) was obtained by knowledge, friendship, and living a virtuous
and temperate life. He lauded the
enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily
desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism. He argued that when
eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction
later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies
in the future. Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction
with the sexual partner. Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social
ethics that has survived. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to
Platonism, though later it became the main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and
his followers shunned politics. Epicurus' school, called "The
Garden," seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected
the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan
by Athenian standards, including women and slaves, and were probably
vegetarians.
Epicureanism emphasizes the neutrality of gods on earth
and that they do not interfere with the world we live in. It also states that
gods, matter and souls are all made from the same thing (atoms). They held that all thoughts are merely atoms swerving
randomly. This explanation was used to relieve the ever-curious minds of people
who wondered anxiously about their role in the universe.
The Epicurean paradox is a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God. The paradox is quoted as this:
God either wants to eliminate bad
things and cannot, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can,
or both wants to and can.
If he wants to and cannot, he is weak -- and this does not apply to God.
If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful -- which is equally foreign
to God's nature.
If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful and so not a god.
If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then
do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them?
Some would interpret
this doctrine of the gods as really a disguised atheism. Fully aware of the
fate of Socrates when brought up on a charge of impiety, Epicurus avoided
expressing an overt atheism. Epicurus did not, however, deny the existence of
gods, but he did not think of them along the lines that lead to this paradox,
rather as blissful and immortal yet material beings made of atoms inhabiting
the metakosmia, empty spaces between worlds in the vastness of infinite
space. In spite of his (nominal) recognition of the gods, the practical effect
of this materialistic explanation of the gods’ existence and their complete
non-intervention in human affairs renders his philosophy atheistic on the
practical level, but avoids the charge of atheism on the theoretical level.
The philosophy originated by Epicurus centered around the
idea that the pleasure of the individual was the sole or chief good in life.
Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount
of pleasure possible during one’s lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to
avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure. The emphasis
was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures. Therefore, according to Epicurus, with whom a person
eats is of greater importance than what is eaten. Unnecessary and,
especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed. Since
learning, culture, and civilization as well as social and political
involvements could give rise to desires that are difficult to satisfy and thus
result in disturbing one’s peace of mind, they were discouraged. Knowledge was
sought only to rid oneself of religious fears and superstitions, the two
primary fears to be eliminated being fear of the gods and of death. Viewing
marriage and what attends it as a threat to one’s peace of mind, Epicurus lived
a celibate life but did not impose this restriction on his followers.
The philosophy was characterized by a complete absence of
principle. Lawbreaking was counseled against simply because of the shame
associated with detection and the punishment it might bring. Living in fear of
being found out or punished would take away from pleasure, and this made even
secret wrongdoing inadvisable. To
the Epicureans, virtue in itself had no value and was beneficial only when it
served as a means to gain happiness. Reciprocity was recommended, not
because it was right and noble, but because it paid off. Friendships rested on
the same selfish basis, that is, the pleasure resulting to the possessor.
While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy,
paradoxically Epicurus referred to life as a “bitter gift.”
The Epicureans believed in the existence of gods, but that they, just like
everything else, were made of atoms, though of finer texture. It was thought
that the gods were too far away from the earth to have any interest in what man
was doing; so it did not do any good to pray or to sacrifice to them. The gods,
they believed, did not create the universe, nor did they inflict punishment or
bestow blessings on anyone, but they were supremely happy, and this was the
goal to strive for during one’s life. However, the Epicureans contended that
the gods were in no position to aid anyone in this, that life came into
existence by accident in a mechanical universe, and that death ends everything,
liberating the individual from the nightmare of life. Although it was believed
that man has a soul, the soul was thought to be composed of atoms that dissolve
at the death of the body, just as water spills out of a pitcher that breaks.
Epicurus was an early thinker to develop the notion of
justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement "neither
to harm nor be harmed." The point of living in a society with laws and
punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue
happiness.
Tetrapharmakos, or, "The four-part cure," is Epicurus' overall statement of how to live the happiest possible life. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines:
Don't fear god,
Don't worry about death;
What is good is easy to get, and
What is terrible is easy to endure.
(Philodemus, Herculaneum Papyrus, 1005, 4.9-14)
Your Assignment:
|
Examine Cassius’ character in light of
his professed Epicureanism. Where possible, find evidence in what Cassius
says and does of his Epicureanism. Is Cassius a “perfect” Epicurean, or does
he act differently than he talks? Does Cassius’ professed Epicureanism have
an effect upon the outcome of the play for his character? Why or why not?
Write 3 paragraphs minimum (Good students will write more). |